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The Chrysokamino Metallurgy Workshop and its Territory. By PHILIP P. 

BETANCOURT. Hesperia Supplement 36. Princeton: ASCSA Publications, 2006. 

Pp. xxii + 462. Paper, $65.00. ISBN 978–0–87661–536–2.



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At first glance, this book is the stunningly timely publication of 

archaeological research revolving around a metallurgy workshop and its 

broader geographical, social and historical context in the gulf of 

Mirabello in East Crete. More specifically, it is the publication of the 

excavation of a FN–EMIII metallurgy workshop at Chrysokamino, the survey of 

the surrounding area (a farmstead last inhabited in LMIIIB) and the 

typological study of pottery from an older excavation at the neighboring 

cave of Theriospilio. However, there is more than meets the eye in this 

volume: the reader is presented with an exemplary way of designing, 

implementing, undertaking and presenting archaeological research; last, and 

certainly to the students of ancient metallurgical practices not least, all 

significant trends in archaeometallurgy are discussed accurately and 

concisely by experts such as P. Betancourt and J.D. Muhly, covering 

chronologically the 20th century and forward, and spanning geographically 

the Mediterranean and beyond.



Philip P. Betancourt oversaw the implementation of both the research 

project and the publication of the results. The volume is divided into 

three parts with chapters composed by different specialists. An extensive 

and useful series of Appendices follows, again the work of various 

contributors (pp. 281–432).



Part I, The Chrysokamino Territory (pp.3–46), begins with an introduction 

by Betancourt (Ch. 1). An interesting feature of this introduction is the 

discussion of modern toponyms of the area under investigation; this is 

uncommon in publications of archaeological excavations and surveys and 

makes clear the holistic approach of the project from its inception. After 

a brief discussion of previous research in the vicinity, Betancourt sets 

out the primary research goals: emphasis was given to the metallurgical 

workshop (its excavation established dates between the FN–EMIII); and a 

study of neighboring farmsteads was conducted for their potential 

association with the workshop, along with a survey of the area to establish 

a general context for the excavation finds. One notes (p. 18) how the 

“archaeological plan” (p. 18) is presented in a typical processual manner. 

Ch. 2 is a study of the climate conditions, the geology and mineralogy, and 

the topography of Chrysokamino in the Early Bronze Age (EBA). The summary 

on p. 38 is useful for those who only need to form a general idea of the 

environmental conditions of the region.



In Part II, the results and conclusions of the excavation of the metallurgy 

workshop are presented in a multi-disciplinary manner. Each chapter 

concerns a different aspect of research on the workshop and is composed by 

a different specialist (pp. 47–192).



Ch.3 presents the excavation methodology in detail. The workshop site was 

excavated (after a survey in 1995) for two continuous seasons (1996 and 

1997) in the grid-square system. The methodology can be described as 

systematic, thorough, careful and “rigorous”, in the researchers’ own words 

(p. 61). Ch.4 attempts to reconstruct the history of the apsidal 

structure’s use. The apsidal structure was the only architectural feature 

unearthed on the Chrysokamino workshop site, amidst a vast slag heap and 

pieces of pottery and industrial ceramics; three floor layers were 

discovered, along with eight postholes. Sherds associated with the floors 

belong to the EMIII–MMIA periods. No evidence, however was found to suggest 

their primary use in the structure; they were carried there along with the 

soil that formed the floors (p. 61). The structure is interpreted as a 

small kitchen or storage space for the smelters (p. 63). I find the 

argument incomplete, due to the lack of evidence, although one cannot 

exclude such a possibility. The major problem is that metallurgical 

installations of comparable date in the Aegean remain largely unexcavated. 

One might suggest a glance at comparative material from other times 

(certainly not in the form of “ethnographic parallel” or “analogy”) as a 

source of ideas regarding the use of the hut at Chrysokamino. This would 

require more attention to the sociocultural context of EBA Aegean 

metallurgical practices, an understudied aspect of EBA Aegean metallurgy. 

The pottery dating between FN–EMIII–MMIA is presented in Ch. 5. No complete 

vessels were found. The pottery is studied in two separate groups: that 

from the slag pile and that from the apsidal structure. However, there 

seems to be no justification for this division. The pottery analysis is 

followed by a detailed catalogue with accurately executed drawings (pp. 

73–97).



Stone tools (Ch. 6) are rare finds at the metallurgy workshop of 

Chrysokamino, something unsurprising in the context of EBA Aegean 

metallurgy. EBA smelters had no reason to abandon fully or even partially 

functioning tools. Indeed, such tools are more commonly associated with 

settlements rather than industrial sites in the Aegean (cf. n. 1, above: 

Ayios Sostis on Siphnos).



Ceramic fragments of smelting furnaces are treated separately (Ch. 7)—and 

rightly so, since their manufacture and use both differ substantially from 

those of clay vessels. The conclusion that the fragments were part of 

cylinder chimneys is convincing. Also, the drawings of reconstructed 

furnaces are very informative for the reader who might not be familiar with 

pre-industrial metallurgical practices (p. 111, fig. 7.3). In the 

“Implications” section (p. 113), there is a stimulating, albeit not 

elaborate, discussion of social issues pertaining to EBA Aegean metallurgy.



Chs. 8–10 present bellows, miscellaneous ceramics and the so-called 

uncatalogued metallurgy materials (slag and ore among other things), 

respectively. Beyond typology, all three chapters contribute to the 

reconstruction of the metallurgical process, and this is where their 

greatest value lies. Significant for students of ancient metallurgy is the 

statement (supported by adequate analytical data in the appendix) that 

samples were analyzed “by more than one method” (p. 140). With regard to 

the conclusions on p. 144, the designation “not profitable” is used as an 

argument to support the view that “skilled metalworkers” were not employed 

for the preparation (beneficiation) of the ore to be smelted. Such 

attributes should be used with caution, since too little is known about the 

sociocultural circumstances of EBA Aegean metallurgy to be able to infer 

who was skilled at doing what, the level of competence of the individuals 

involved in the metallurgical process, or even the social standing of 

metallurgists and their craft. (Was the art of metallurgy open to all? Or 

was it a privilege restricted to certain members of the community?) On p. 

144, an important point is made and should not pass unnoticed: the evidence 

points toward the use of multiple ore sources, making identification of 

specific ore bodies (i.e., Kythnos; Laurion) either by lead isotope or 

elemental composition analysis impossible. This should suffice to put an 

end to the heated lead isotope analysis debate of the 1990s. On the other 

hand, the discussion of the (deliberate?) use of arsenic is inconclusive.



The next two chapters discuss fauna (Ch. 11), which reveals a diet pattern 

comprising mostly shellfish, and possible evidence of threshing (Ch. 12). 

Chapter 13 can stand alone and is likely to be considered seminal and 

crucial to Aegean metallurgy discussion for years to come. In this chapter, 

J.D. Muhly presents his vast knowledge and acute critical insight, 

re-writing the history of East Mediterranean and Balkan—not solely 

Aegean—metallurgy in about 25 pages. Anyone who wishes to study Bronze Age 

metallurgy could start with Muhly’s contribution. Especially important is 

his review of the research—both published and unpublished—conducted in the 

last two decades, as well as the compilation of a very up-to-date 

bibliography. Chapter 14 summarizes parts I and II, connects them with the 

analytical data presented in the appendices, and views the finds at 

Chrysokamino in their broader Aegean craft-specialization context.



Part III concerns the surface survey which formed an integral part of the 

Crysokamino project. Ch. 15 lays out the methodology (cf. Ch. 3, see 

above). Emphasis is placed on timely publication—a crucial matter for 

research in the Aegean, since many projects remain unpublished, making 

finds inaccessible to other researchers. Ch. 16 revolves around topography, 

while Ch. 17 is a somewhat preliminary report of the mostly LM habitation 

site, awaiting its promised final publication in a separate volume. Ch. 18 

lays out the history of Edith Hall’s early 20th century excavation of the 

cave of Theriospilio, based on her personal correspondence. (Hall never 

published her excavation results and finds). The catalogue of the pottery 

Hall found is useful for study purposes, since for the most part the sherds 

are scattered in various collections, and raises the crucial issue of 

chronology between the FN/EBI in the Aegean.



Chs. 19–21 can be read in conjunction. In Ch. 19, Haggis reconstructs a 

habitation context for the metallurgy workshop, based on an earlier survey 

(conducted in 1989–90). Of particular importance are pp. 227–8, where the 

changes marked in the EMIII–MMIA period indicate increased social 

stratification. In Ch. 20, territorial boundaries are defined, separately 

for each period, based on a methodology initially developed for the study 

of Roman farms and estates (p. 236). A tentative outline of boundaries in 

the region under study is attempted. The figures that accompany the text 

are a great aid to the reader of this somewhat technical chapter. Ch. 21 

refers to the use of land on the farmstead. It examines agricultural 

practices, looking into factors that affect them, such as soil types, 

climate changes and topographic features (i.e. availability of arable 

land). It presents an interesting classification of land use and proceeds 

to analyze the suggested categories.



Ch. 22 presents the survey conclusions. Already in the opening paragraph, 

all the important points of the last three chapters are presented, ending 

with a notable comment: “The history of Chrysokamino shows that cultural 

change, as others have suggested, is usually based on complex forces of 

formation and dissolution rather than on a strictly linear, gradual 

development” (p. 257)—although it is doubtful whether scholars still think 

of change in linear terms. The last two pages of the chapter (pp. 277–8) 

examine the situation of the Chrysokamino territory well into the 20th 

century, offering an interesting diachronic approach as well as an 

impromptu lesson in contemporary Greek history.



The Appendices revolve around laboratory analyses of artifacts found in the 

excavation of the Chrysokamino workshop and survey of the region. It is 

extremely important that all authors present all parameters of their work 

in utmost detail, not simply charts and numbers, so as to make their 

research results comparable and secure their reliability and scholarly and 

scientific integrity.



The volume is richly illustrated with photographs and drawings, accompanied 

by carefully composed captions, aiming at scientific and scholarly accuracy 

rather than impressive views of coffee-table quality. The book is very 

informative and written in a manner accessible to non-specialists, without 

compromising scholarly accuracy. A glossary of technical terms would have 

been a welcome addition, although such terms are certainly defined in 

individual chapters. This is not merely a site publication, but might also 

be used as a companion to the study of archaeometallurgy. Publication 

quality is high, with almost no typos. The bibliography (pp. 433–56) is 

up-to-date and complete and the index at the end of the volume is 

exhaustive (pp. 457–62). In short, Chrysokamino constitutes a publication 

par excellence. One only hopes that Aegean metallurgy-related publications 

in the future will follow the lead of Betanourt’s Chrysokamino.



ATHENA HADJI

School of Architecture, University of Patras [log in to unmask]





LIST OF CHAPTERS AND CONTRIBUTORS



Part I: The Chrysokamino Territory

Chapter 1: Ph. P. Betancourt: Introduction, 3–18.



Chapter 2: Ph. P. Betancourt, W.R. Farrand: The Natural Environment, 19–46



Part II: The Metallurgy Workshop Chapter 3: Ph. P. Betancourt, J.D. Muhly, 

E.A. Armpis, R.S. Powell, E.B. Shank, E. Sikla, T. Yangaki: The Excavation 

of the Metallurgy Workshop, 47–54.



Chapter 4: Ph. P. Betancourt: The Apsidal Structure, 55–66.



Chapter 5: Ph. P. Betancourt: The Pottery, 67–98.



Chapter 6: D. Evely: The Stone Tools, 99–108.



Chapter 7: Ph. P. Betancourt: The Furnace Chimney Fragments, 109–24.



Chapter 8: Ph. P. Betancourt, J.D. Muhly: The Pot Bellows, 125–32.



Chapter 9: S.C. Ferrence, B. Koukaras: Micellaneous Ceramic Artifacts, 

133–6.



Chapter 10: Ph. P. Betancourt: Other Metallurgical Materials, 137–48.



Chapter 11: D.S. Reese: Faunal Remains, 149–52.



Chapter 12: G. Jones, A. Schofield: Evidence for the Use of Threshing 

Remains at the Early Minoan Metallurgical Workshop, 153–78.



Chapter 13: J.D. Muhly: Chrysokamino in the History of Early Metallurgy, 

155–78.



Chapter 14: Ph. P. Betancourt: Discussion of the Workshop and 

Reconstruction of the Smelting Practices, 179–92.



Part III: The Surface Survey

Chapter 15: Ph. P. Betancourt: Introduction to the Surface Survey, 193–6.



Chapter 16: L. Onyshkevych, W.B. Hafford: Topography of the Chrysokamino 

Region, 197–204.



Chapter 17: Ch. R. Floyd, A Summary of the Habitation Site at 

Chrysokamino-Chomatas, 205–14.



Chapter 18: Ph. P. Betancourt, Ch. R. Floyd: Edith Hall’s Excavations in 

the Theriospelio Cave, 215–20.



Chapter 19: D.C. Haggis, Chrysokamino in Context: A Regional Archaeological 

Survey, 221–32.



Chapter 20: Ph. P. Betancourt: The geographic Boundaries of the 

Chrysokamino Farmstead Territory, 233–40.



Chapter 21: Ph. P. Betancourt: Land Use on the Chrysokamino Farmstead, 

241–56.



Chapter 22: Ph. P. Betancourt: Survey Conclusions, 257–80.



Appendixes Appendix A: G.H. Myer, Ph. P. Betancourt: Petrography and X-Ray 

Diffraction Analysis of Slags and Furnace Chimneys, 281–92.



Appendix B: Y. Bassiakos: SEM/EDAX Analysis, 293–8.



Appendix C: Z. Stos, N. Gale: Lead Isotope and Chemical Analysis of Slags 

from Chrysokamino, 299–320.



Appendix D: S.C. Ferrence, Ch. P. Swann: Arsenic Content of Copper Prills: 

A Study Applying PIXE, 321–4.



Appendix E: Ch. M. Thompson: Slag Analysis by Wavelength Dispersive 

Spectrometry, 325–8.



Appendix F: Y. Bassiakos, M. Catapotis: Reconstruction of the Copper 

Smelting Process at the Chrysokamino Bases on the Analysis of Ore and Slag 

Samples, 329–54.



Appendix G: Ph. P. Betancourt, L. Onyshkevych, W.B. Hafford: Register of 

Anthropogenic Features, 355–76.



Appendix H: Ph. P. Betancourt: The Minoan Pottery from the Survey, 377–90.



Appendix I: S.C. Ferrence, E.B. Shank: Evidence for Beekeeping, 391–2.



Appendix J: N. Poulou-Papadimitriou: The Byzantine to Ottoman Pottery from 

the Survey, 393–8.



Appendix K: B. Crowell, Ph. P. Betancourt: The Excavation of Cave AF 9 and 

Terrace AF 22b, 399–402.



Appendix L: E. Nodarou: Soils and Sediments from Natural Deposits at 

Chrysokamino, 403–12.



Appendix M: R.F. Beeston, J. Palatinus, C. Beck, E.C. Stout: Organic 

Residue Analysis of Pottery Sherds from Chrysokamino, 413–28.



Appendix N: E. Nodarou: Petrographic Analysis of Two Final Neolithic Sherds 

from the Chrysokamino Metallurgy Location, 429–32.





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